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The Foundation for Biblical Interpretation
Hermaneutics is the science of interpreting the text of the canon of Scripture. The word is directly taken from a Greek word hermaeneuo which means "to explain, to interpret". (Note: The Greek letter "eta" most closely represents an "ae" diphthong in English. This is why sometimes the word is transliterated as "hermeneutics".) The goal of hermaneutics in general literature is to discover the original intent of the author. In the case of Scripture it means discovering the intent of God as he superintended the human writers so that what they wrote would perfectly communicate what God wanted them to write.

Before we can begin the work of explaining some of the basic principles of interpretation, there are some assumptions that must be identified and clarified.

Apologetics
In general the world "apologetic" has a broad set of meanings. In the New Testament the word "apologia" has to do with giving a defense of innocence, or to explain something. When we use it in Theology or in Philosophy it takes on a more narrow technical meaning closer to the way the word is used by Paul and Peter in their Epistles.

Apologetics is the area of study that deals with what is knowable, and how we can have confidence in the truth of what we know. We all begin with presumptions which, by their nature, are not able to be tested. Any test of our presumptions would assume other, more fundamental presumptions, which then would have to be tested too.

All humans begin with a view of themselves and of the universe of which they are a part. They have some fundamental ideas of these things whether they are aware of them or not. The idea of neutrality is a deceptive notion that arises when a person does not admit these first presumptions.

It's interesting to listen to those who argue that it's possible to remain neutral in the study of Scripture. They often deny that they have any presumptions, while at the same time they presume that reasoning can be free from assumptions, and that neutrality is possible in man as he reasons about himself. They stand firmly on these assumptions, the very point they are denying.

Christians bring a set of presumptions with them when they study the Bible and its teachings. However this does not mean that their presuppositions lack a sound foundation. Their certainty rests in the realities they study rather than in the mind that studies them. Their awareness of these first principles is the work of the Holy Spirit who enlivens the soul and makes the student of God's word able to perceive the realities of the Creator who has made himself known both generally and specially.

One of the first presuppositions underlying a biblical hermaneutic is an awareness of God as the one who is self-revealed in the Bible as the only true God and Creator, the one to whom we as creatures are answerable in all things. Another first principle is the possibility of human knowledge since God created us to know him and to promote his glory. This also leads to accepting the reality of the sufficient communication of information. God's use of language in making himself known validates the concept of Scripture as an objective tool for knowing revealed truth. A study of apologetics is essential for the student of the Bible, and is highly recommended. But a thorough examination at this time is far beyond the scope of this survey.

The Process of Hermaneutics
The conclusions we draw from the Bible are determined by two sets of questions:

1. There are the apologetic questions: our starting point
We need to be aware of the presumptions and expectations we bring with us before we begin our study. If our presumptions are in conflict with the internal teachings of Scripture the meaning of any given text will be distorted by tensions from our conflicting point of view.

Our fallen nature would prejudice us to believe that we have a basic ability to neutrally determine the meaning of God's revelation unaided by anything outside of ourselves. So an unregenerate person will experience tension while he wrestles to make sense of a verse about fallen man's total inability to understand spiritual truth (for example 1 Corinthians 2:14, or John 6:44).

His presumption about himself as neutral and as spiritually competent is at odds with the truth taught in the book he is studying. The Bible tells him that he lacks the ability to determine its meaning on his own. He will either have to change his own presumption (which he cannot do being spiritually dead) or he will have to introduce some non-scriptural idea in an attempt to explain away the tension. In so doing he will give a meaning to the text that changes its original sense.

If we bring strong expectations to any problem, there is a tendency to confirm our assumptions because of the kinds of tests we chose for evaluating our proposed solutions. We generally ask questions that relate to the results we believe we will find. Our investigation is unavoidably colored by what we are looking for.

Fallen man approaches the Bible as a mere piece of human literature recording personal impressions of God and religious experiences. This will demand that some of the data contained in Scripture must not be accepted objectively. The Bible as literature will have a different meaning than the Bible studied as the inspired word of God.

Theological ideas may also be brought to the Bible by the interpreter. These also bend the meanings of texts to fit the scholar's expectations. Some early interpreters approached the Old Testament believing that secret information was hidden mystically in every number, detail and article. They found Christ symbolically in the measurements of Noah's ark, in the layout of the city of Jerusalem, etc. While Christ is the center of the Old Testament Message and is the pattern for God's Covenant of Grace, a forced christological method tends to overlook the original meaning of a passage and to support fanciful ideas about the person and work of Christ. Yet, because some expected to find such things, their imagination is successful in reading such ideas into the text.

2. There are the hermaneutical questions:
We must identify the methods we employ in analyzing a biblical text. If we insist that the Bible alone is the infallible rule in matters of faith and practice, then we must also derive our rules of interpretation from Scripture alone. Any rule or principle we bring from our own reason is suspect if not confirmed by exegetical evidences.

For example, some presume as an interpretive rule that since miracles and the supernatural are beyond our own experience and cannot be tested by scientific methods, they must be ignored when trying to find the sense of a passage. An interpreter with that presumption will begin by eliminating all supernatural elements before he even begins to examine the text. Such a method would yield religious ideas that have nothing to do with the God of Scripture.

Some assume that what God required morally in the Old Testament cannot be brought into our interpretation of what is expected by God in the New Testament unless the specific commandment is repeated in Scripture after the time of the birth of Christ. This rule reveals a set of expectations that are usually adopted to protect some doctrine, theological system, or personal practice that otherwise would have to be modified. This principle will effect our interpretations of law, Sabbath, church government, family, the sacraments, ethics, and many other important teachings.

An unsound hermaneutic will produce interpretations that have internal tensions and cannot produce consistent results. Biblically sound principles of hermaneutics yield a fully consistent system of doctrine which produces the same results regardless of who is doing the interpreting.

Chapter one of the Westminster Confession of Faith summarizes the basic principles of reformed hermaneutics in sections six through ten.

A few Latin Expressions reflect these First Principles
1. Sola Scriptura = "Scripture alone" (WCF I:VIa,IX,X)
The inspired Scriptures are the only way we can examine God and his word objectively today. They provide the only infallible information and perfect rules for Bible study.

Reformed Bible students will not seek independent reason, visions, voices or signs to add information to a biblical text. They will not accept as authoritative the independent testimony of the church, science, archaeology, philosophy, mystical experience or personal anecdotes. While commentaries, dictionaries and diagrams may be helpful in communicating the results of good hermaneutics, they can never be quoted independently as a source of reliable data. Exra-biblical expectations, presumptions, or facts should never be allowed to color our exegesis other than by shedding light on the meaning of the words and references in the inspired text itself.

For example it violates this principle to look up a word in a lexicon or dictionary, then use that information to argue that the word in a given text must always be given just one particular meaning. The way a word is used is the best guide to it's meaning. As we know from our own use of language, words often vary in how they are used in different eras, cultures and contexts. Editors of theological dictionaries and of lexicons of the biblical languages are susceptible to error and prejudice based on their own presumptions like any one else. They must not be used as a final authority. A broad study of how a given word is used is the best test of the scope of its meanings.

Some defend certain doctrines saying that the Holy Spirit spoke to them or led them to their understanding. They quote a few proof texts in support of what they believe they have discovered, but usually are not careful about checking their context. Such mystical claims and backward exegesis discard the principle of sola scriptura.

2. Scriptura Scripturae interpres = "Scripture interprets Scripture"
The best way to understand a passage is to see how the rest of Scripture fits with it and clarifies it.

A thorough familiarity with the whole of the Bible (both testaments) is a necessary goal toward which every exegete should strive. Cross-references help the exegete to locate other texts that use the same expressions or that may cover the same material.

The student of any text must first answer some basic questions: Does the text being studied quote or allude to other biblical portions? Do the expressions used have well established meanings derived from earlier inspired books? Is the text referred to, or expounded upon, in some later portion of Scripture?

Not all portions of Scripture are equally clear, nor are they all intended for instruction. Passages that directly teach or command are more helpful in learning about God's will than are passages which simply record historic events. Recorded acts of individuals may be either evil or good (WCF I:VII). Passages that deal directly with an issue must be called upon to interpret passages which only indirectly or incidentally refer to the issue. A purely allegorical approach to interpretation may only show the power of an interpreter's imagination, rather than what God intended in a given passage.

3. Omnis intellectus ac expositio Scripturae sit analogia fidei
= "all understanding and exposition of Scripture is an analogy of faith"
There must be a consistency in all revealed truth because it represents absolute truth in the mind of God. What the Bible says corresponds with, or is analogous to, the larger understanding of it, as the Infinite God sees it. Therefore each passage can have only one certain and simple sense. As the infallibly inspired word of God, the Scriptures are reliable, self-consistent and carry within them all that is needed for clarity. Since all that God makes known fits with what He knows perfectly, it is always proper to assume that no contradictions or dual realities can be attached to what He speaks. If ideas derived from the study of the Bible seem to be in conflict, then we have not yet grasped the meaning of the text. Very likely an unsound assumption or method has been introduced into our reasoning. (WCF I:VI,IX)

Orthotomic Study
Biblical hermaneutics is primarily concerned with rightly determining the original intent of each text of Scripture. As a passage is examined we must proceed according to principles affirmed in the Scriptures themselves. Paul wrote to Timothy about the importance of careful study;

2 Timothy 2:15 "Be diligent to present yourself approved to God, a worker who does not need to be ashamed, rightly dividing the word of truth."

The word translated "rightly dividing", or "handling accurately" in the NASB, is "orthotomounta". The root is a combination of two basic Greek terms. "Ortho" is a root meaning "straight." We use this prefix in English with medical terms such as: "orthodontist," a doctor who makes teeth straight, or "orthopedic" relating to making feet straight. The term used by Paul is combined with another Greek root "to-me-o". This root means "to cut" or "to slice." In biology a microscopic slice may be made with a micro-tome, a tool that cuts a specimen into microscopically thin slices.

The compound word means "straight-cutting." When the Scriptures are dissected by analysis they must be cut in a straight manner to avoid deriving crooked or perverted meanings. Our study ought to yield the straight truth of the text. A proper study of the Bible must be "orthotomic," an attempt to cut it in a straight manner.

Calvin wrote, "the first business of an interpreter is to let his author say what he does say, instead of attributing to him what we think he ought to say."

To accomplish this careful analysis the faithful exegete must complete three basic tasks: the Grammatical task, the Historical task, and the Theological task.

1. The Grammatical Task
Like any piece of literature, each text of Scripture has a grammatical structure. Its words and the way they are put together in sentences and paragraphs convey the information God intends for us to learn. It is vital that the student of Scripture determines all the possible ways a given expression can be construed grammatically. From these options he proceeds to the other tasks of interpretation. The grammatical task involves three areas of work: lexicography, accidence and syntax.

Lexicography is the study of the meaning of words. One of the first goals in the study of any particular text is to determine the meanings of the words used. But definitions are dynamic. Meanings change with time. They usually have spheres of meaning including many special uses which culture and history impose on the words. Though they have a particular derivation from a specific root word, they almost always have several definitions after being used for a period of time. The exegete of Scripture should consider all the possible meanings of the words in the text he is studying.

The study of synonyms is important. Words often share areas of meaning, but they each usually have a unique nuance depending on the purpose, historical period, and culture of the writer. The implications of words and groups of words become limited as they take on idiomatic meanings unique to a particular topic, place and time. Words also may become attached to figurative images that can be helpful in conveying much more than the word itself provides.

The interpreter must keep all possible meanings and uses of a word before him until he eliminates the meanings that are inconsistent with the context. This way he discovers the meaning that best fits with the text.

There are several tools that help the interpreter with this task: Concordances show all the occasions where words are found in Scripture. Since the primary indicator of the meaning of a word is the way it is used, the concordance is the primary tool of the lexicographer. English concordances of particular versions of the Bible are of limited help because the same English word is not always used when translating a particular Greek or Hebrew word. Sometimes words take on different shades of meaning by their grammatical form which is not always reflected in an English concordance. The best concordance is one that is based on the original language rather than a translation. The well known Englishman's Concordances are based on Hebrew and Greek words but show the verses in English. A student does not need to know the original languages to use these reference tools. The Strong's Concordance has also become a favorite since it indexes the original words by a simple numbering system.

Lexicons and dictionaries list the various meanings and uses of a word. The student of Scripture must keep in mind that lexicons and dictionaries are not inspired by God. They are the product of fallible human scholarship, not the infallible Holy Spirit. The definitions found in these books are only a summary of a sampling of uses of a particular word selected by the editor. Good lexicons will catalogue a full range of the meanings of a word. They also give examples showing each meaning of a word in a sample context. Some show not only biblical uses of words but also include their use in other literature contemporary with the era and culture of the biblical writers.

Word study books collect articles about the meanings of words. They are very likely to be strongly influenced by the theology of the editors, but can be extremely helpful, particularly if contexts are given where you can see how the word was actually used in other places.

Synonym studies are helpful to aid us in comparing similar words so that we can identify their uniqueness, areas of overlap and individual flavors. Idiom studies analyze special localized meanings unique to specific places and times.

Accidence is the study of the grammatical forms of words. Words often take on different spellings, endings and prefixes that show how they relate with the other words in a sentence. It may help us to determine if a noun is the subject or the object of the thought. It is important to know if a word is singular or plural, masculine, feminine or neuter. Words need to be recognized as verbs, substantives, particles, adjectives, adverbs, and so on. Verbs have a particular tense or mood attached to them by their grammatical form.

The tools that help with this task are a bit more technical. They include grammar books that show word forms and their meanings. They explain the way various kinds of words are changed to indicate their place in the sentence. It is basic that the interpreter know his own language well, and the general rules of linguistics that apply generally to other languages. He should also understand the fundamental differences that distinguish the various groups of languages. It is hard to benefit from Greek or Hebrew grammars without some formal training. There are helps that enable those who only know the languages casually to make significant progress. But there is no substitute for a thorough knowledge of the languages themselves. Grammars for beginners will explain the basic forms. Advanced grammars will analyze the forms in more detail and show the less generalized uses of the forms. The best ones will also help you understand the cultural thought behind such things as verb tense, which has a very different implication in Hebrew, Greek and English.

Analytical lexicons are books that identify the forms of each word found in Scripture. They should be used with caution because they often are not complete as to the possible meanings of each form. They can also become a substitute for students of a language learning to recognize the forms. It can hinder them from gaining real proficiency.

Syntax is the study of the relationships between the words as they are used in phrases, sentences and paragraphs. Knowing the grammatical forms is only the beginning. Once the forms are all identified the information must be put together to determine the meaning of the sentence. Word order and the combination of the various grammatical forms limit the possible meanings of a text. It can be useful to diagram a sentence using the symbols and forms familiar to students of English grammar.

The tools used in the study of syntax include the grammars and idiom books described before.

2. The Historical Task
To understand a text properly the interpreter must know where it fits into the unfolding of God's plan in the context of history. It helps us to know the writer, the ones to whom he is writing, the situation each was in at the time, the problems that were important at that time, and the contemporary setting. The contemporary setting includes the current customs, problems, events and expressions used that color the meaning of the text.

It is crucial to know what information had already been made known to those to whom the writing was originally intended. It is also important to know where the hearer stands in time with reference the unfolding of the work of redemption. Is the passage referring to a time before the details of the Levitical system had been revealed to Moses? Was it written for the time of the Levitical Priesthood? Was it referring to the period when the Levitical sacrifices had been fulfilled in the coming of Messiah?

For example, references to the rebuilding of the Temple can be confusing. During the period of the captivity, God promised to provide for its rebuilding after His people were returned to the land. This occurred during the time of Zerubbabel, Ezra and Nehemiah. If that promise is carelessly read it may give the impression that some of these texts describe a yet future physical temple which will be rebuilt at Jerusalem reverting to the now fulfilled levitical forms.

3. The Theological Task
The interpreter also must know the overall biblical context. Since God's word in its entirety is an unfolding of God's unchanging truth, we must know how the various facts fit together topically as larger concepts God makes known to his children.

Context expands outwardly from a text. The immediate context shows its purpose and place in the flow of thought in the sentence, paragraph and portion of the book. The book context is a broader look at the primary purpose and concern of the entire work in which a specific text is found. We should know how it fits with the author's purpose and development of thought. The overall context of Scripture is important because every revealed truth must bear a consistent relationship with every other revealed truth. No contradictions are possible considering the principle of "analogy of faith". If tensions arise they must be explained by considering God's direct revelation, not by theological ideas imposed upon the text.

A careless "proof-text" approach violates this principle. Instead of allowing theology to emerge out of the whole context of Scripture, isolated quotes are selected and massed to support a theological idea without first making a careful study of the context of each citation.

These three basic tasks of hermaneutics are not exclusive of one another: For example; the historical question must be considered theologically. God has not revealed himself all at once. He did not provide the work of the Messiah as soon as man first fell into sin. It is crucial that the interpreter determine how a text fits into the unfolding of God's redemptive plan.

When a text is studied theologically we must ask the historical questions; What had God already made known about this and related matters? Have previous portions of Scripture established meanings that are assumed by the author? and How does this text fit with what God says about His overall redemptive work?

The grammatical question must be considered historically. We need to find out what grammatical forms, idioms and word meanings were current when the specific book was written.

Each task must be taken up with full consideration of the impact of the other tasks.

The Holy Spirit as Illuminator
Man is a fallen creature. Even redeemed man remains imperfect in this life. His moral imperfections will color his outlook on a text. Therefore the work of the Holy Spirit on the regenerate heart is an essential element in reformed hermaneutics. (WCF I:VIb)

Jesus promised that the Spirit would lead his people into truth (John 14:17,26 16:7-14). But the Holy Spirit is not a direct source of new information to individuals now that the canon of Scripture is complete and the Apostolic foundation has been laid (Ephesians 2:20). The Spirit testifies to what God has already spoken. The Spirit's work for the interpreter is illumination, not revelation.

There must be a union between the work of the Spirit and the study of the revealed word. If we look to the word without the aid of the Spirit we will likely construe it in a distorted manner. If we look to the Spirit without the aid of the word we have no objective standard by which we may distinguish the Spirit of God from spirits of error. The Holy Spirit ministers truth to us by means of the revealed word, not independently from it.

Conclusion
The information presented in this brief survey lays a foundation for the theological student. Each area covered in the prolegomena to theology involves many more intriguing questions which should challenge the serious inquirer to an ever widening study that never exhausts but continuously moves closer to an understanding of God's revealed truth.

Prolegomena lays the foundation for all further studies of Scripture. To the degree that these first principles are based upon what the Creator has made known, the studies will approach a sound system that essentially corresponds with absolute truth. This has been the task known historically as Reformed Theology. The ideas it has produced are carefully laid out in the standards of Westminster, Dort, Belgium and Heidleberg.

May the Lord bless the work of those in whose heart he has placed a burning desire to discover, love, and obey the truths God revealed.

Questions for Review and Thought
1. What does the field of hermaneutics cover?
2. What does the field of apologetics cover?
3. Where should a Christian's assumptions come from?
4. What does the Latin expression "Sola Scriptura" mean?
5. What does the Latin expression "Scriptura Scripturae interpres" mean?
6. What does the Latin expression "Omnis intellectus ac expositio Scripturae sit analogia fidei" mean?
7. What do we mean by "orthotomic" study?
8. What are the primary areas of the Grammatical task?
9. What is the primary work of the Historical task?
10. What is the primary work of the Theological task?
11. How does the work of the Holy Spirit enter into the work of the interpreter of Scripture?